The February Strike: The Common Man Against Nazi Occupation
The February strike was a strike on 25 and 26 February starting in Amsterdam and spreading out over the Netherlands. It was the first and only large-scale resistance action against the German occupiers and an open protest against the persecution of the Jews, unique in occupied Europe.
Introduction
On February 25, 1941, tens of thousands of Amsterdammers stopped work and took to the streets to demonstrate against the German occupiers.
The February strike was a reaction to the increasingly harsh measures being taken against the Jews. Not only by the Germans but also by the Dutch NSB. The WA, uniformed troops of the NSB, provoked the Jewish neighborhoods (“Jodenbuurt”), smashed windows and forced cafe owners to put up placards saying, “Jews not wanted”. There were fights almost every day.
Ordinary brave strikers
Background
On 9 February 1941, mass fights broke out on the Rembrandtsplein near the Jewish quarter. Jewish boys clashed with the WA. On 11 February, NSB member Hendrik Koot was wounded during a fight and died later. On 19 February, a patrol of the German Ordnungspolizei was ambushed in IJssalon Koco.
Hanns Rauter, the German chief of the SS and police in the Netherlands, reported the incidents to SS leader Heinrich Himmler and expanded the facts considerably. Himmler, Rauter and Reichskommissar Arthur Seyss-Inquart decided on a tough approach; the first raid took place on 22 and 23 February. To set an example, a total of 427 Jewish men aged between twenty and thirty-five were deported to camp Schoorl.
Typewriter with strike leaflet
The Strike
The ‘Jew hunt’ led to fierce outrage among the Amsterdammers. On February 24, municipal workers gathered at the Noordermarkt for a meeting of the underground Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN) and decided to go on strike. Workers from various companies were also called to strike through a manifesto that was distributed in the early morning.
Strikers succeeded in blocking trams as they tried to leave the depot. Due to the absence of the trams, everyone noticed that there was a strike and more and more people joined what would become one of the greatest acts of resistance against Nazi Germany. Businesses closed their doors and students left their classrooms. The strike spread. A day later, people in Hilversum, Haarlem, Utrecht and other places also stopped working.
The Germans intervened with harsh measures to end the strike. Nine people were killed, 24 seriously injured and numerous strikers were arrested. After two days the strike was over – also under pressure from the Amsterdam city council. The participating cities were fined heavily by the Germans. Amsterdam had to pay 15 million. After the strike, the hunt was opened on members of the Communist Party. Another planned strike was cancelled because of this.
Jewish Amsterdammers held at gunpoint
Historical value
The February strike is a unique event in the history of the occupation; it is the first public protest against the Nazis in occupied Europe and the only mass protest against the deportation of Jews to be organized by non-Jews.
It was also the last public expression of dissatisfaction with the fate of the Jews; the occupier had suppressed the strike with such violence, most Dutch people opted for passivity, while a smaller group set up underground organizations (see blogpost Resistance movement) to protect their Jewish fellow citizens against the Nazis.
Passport photos strikers
Commemoration
The February Strike is commemorated annually at the statue “De Dokwerker” on Jonas Meijerplein in Amsterdam. The bronze sculpture of a striking dock worker, made in 1952 by sculptor Mari Andriessen, symbolizes the resistance of the common man against the occupier.
Dokwerker Statue Amsterdam
The February Strike and The Crystal Butterfly
In my soon-to-be released 6th novel in The Resistance Girl Series, The Crystal Butterfly, main character Edda Van der Valk keeps a diary to register all the Germans are doing to her country. This is what Edda writes in her diary after the February strike.
Amsterdam, 27 February 1941
We’ve had two extraordinary days! But also very sad ones. I never thought it possible, but the Dutch actually stood up to the Germans in a two-day national strike. It started here in Amsterdam, but it also spread to other parts of Holland. I fear it will backfire on us but at least it gave those who hate the Nazis a boost. I also now know for sure my neighbor Mevrouw Meulenbelt is anti-German, as we finally talked.
(…)
The strike was immediately knocked down by the Germans and I fear harsh repercussions. I truly hope they won’t take it out on poor Van Limburg Stirum and the other hostages!
However, the spree of freedom was exhilarating. I just wish I had the courage to really show which side I’m on. Well, I don’t. But I can tell you, Herr Hitler and your mouthpiece Meneer Mussert, we won’t lay down without another fight. So be prepared.
Het Oranjehotel: from Nazi prison to National monument
The Oranjehotel was the nickname for the Scheveningen prison during WW2. More than 25,000 people were imprisoned here between 1940 and 1945 for interrogation and trial. Arrested for actions that the German occupier saw as a violation. Resistance fighters, but also Jews, communists, Jehovah's Witnesses and black marketers. The prison was already called the ‘Oranjehotel’ during the war. An ode to the resistance fighters who were imprisoned here.
“In this prison / there is no scum / but Dutch glory / damn it!”
Introduction
Het Oranjehotel was the prison established by the Nazis in Scheveningen, Netherlands during World War II. Over 25,000 people were detained in this prison, including members of the Dutch Resistance, Jews, Jehovah's Witnesses, and individuals accused of economic offenses. The name “Oranjehotel” was given by the Dutch as a tribute to the imprisoned Resistance members, while the Germans called it “Polizeigefängnis”.
Doodenboek (Death Book)
The prisoners
Under extremely harsh conditions, the prison housed Dutch people from various backgrounds, including soldiers, students, artists, politicians, and clergy. Political prisoners and those arrested based on ethnicity, philosophy of life, or sexual orientation were also held there. Specific resistance groups were imprisoned here, such as De Geuzen (see last week’s blogpost), as well as secret agents betrayed in the German’s Englandspiel. There were numerous instances of torture and death of prisoners. Many of the detainees were sentenced to long stays in German camps or prisons, and more than 250 people were executed on the nearby Waalsdorpervlakte.
Doodencel 601 (Death Cell 601)
After the war
After the war, the prison briefly served as a detention center for collaborators and members of the Nazi regime. In 1947, the Oranjehotel Committee was established to create a lasting memorial at the prison site. The Oranjehotel Monument, including "Doodencel 601" (Death Cell 601) and commemorative plaques, was created.
The Oranjehotel Foundation was formed to manage the monument and organize annual commemorations. In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and renovate the prison as an authentic monument.
Cell 601 (see video) was a death cell where inmates waited before being taken to the execution site. The cell has been preserved in its original state and contains inscriptions by prisoners. Several well-known individuals, such as Bernardus IJzerdraat (Geuzen leader), Erik Hazelhoff Roelfzema (Soldier of Orange) and Corrie ten Boom (Christian hider of Jews) and George Maduro (Madurodam was dedicated to him), were imprisoned in the Oranjehotel.
The prison complex remained in use until 2009 and was opened as a Commemorative Center in 2019. Visitors to the Oranjehotel National Monument can learn about the stories of the prisoners and experience the conditions they endured. The permanent exhibition emphasizes the importance of remembering the sacrifices made during times of injustice, oppression, and persecution.
National Monument Oranjehotel
The Crystal Butterfly and Het Oranjehotel
The Oranjehotel is mentioned twice in The Crystal Butterfly and the last time is the most important one. Edda visits the prison after the war when her father is detained there as a member of the National Socialist movement.
A snippet:
She was the only visitor with her father in a large room with small tables each with two chairs. Guards stood at the two entrance doors, listening to every word they would exchange and ready to grab the prisoner by the arms should he so much as utter a favorable word about the NSB.
Edda fumbled with the button on her jacket, racking her brain what to say. Her father stared at the Formica table. He sat very still, hunched and withdrawn into himself. Edda knew she would have to open the conversation.
“How are you, Father?”
“Good.”
Better be honest. “You don’t look like you’re ‘good’, Father.”
She saw him shift slightly in his chair.
“What do you expect me to say then, Eddaline?”
“You could perhaps start with asking me why I am here?” she said it as lightly as possible.
“There was no need to come. I left everything in your name.” A toneless, dead voice.
“That’s not what I mean, Father. I needn’t have come here to find that out. Duifje and Jan Sipkema already told me.”
Later Edda thought it must have been the mentioning of his solicitor that made the change. Her father looked up and Edda almost jumped back in her chair. His eyes, her father’s eyes, once merry and blue like Duifje’s, were colorless, lifeless, disinterested. His soul was dead. What had happened to her formidable Papa? And that was what she blurted out.
“Papa, what has happened to you?”
“What do you mean? I was arrested. As I should have been. So, all’s well.”
National Monument Oranjehotel
The First Dutch Resistance Movement in WW2: The Geuzen
During WW2, most Dutch citizens tried to maintain normalcy under German control, but some resisted. Bernardus IJzerdraat formed the Geuzenactie resistance group, but their lack of secrecy led to their arrest and execution. Despite this, their bravery was honored after the war through memorials and organizations dedicated to promoting democracy.
Introduction
After the surrender in May 1940, most Dutch citizens aimed to maintain their normal way of life amidst German control. This involved cooperating with the occupiers to prevent increased interference in the government and economy. While the authorities initially urged the population to obey and avoid resistance, some individuals immediately opposed the German occupiers. On 14 May 1940, the first Dutch resistance group, ‘De Geuzen’ (The Beggars), was established in Vlaardingen.
Leader of The Geuzen, Bernardus IJzerdraat
Foundation and actions
One of the people to immediately turn away from the German occupier was Bernardus IJzerdraat. IJzerdraat was a resident of Rotterdam and worked as a teacher in the vicinity of Rotterdam. The results of the 14 May 1940 bombing of Rotterdam made such a profound impression on him that he decided to resist. He foresaw “a new Alva soon, with blood council and inquisition”. In line with this comparison with the Eighty Years' War, he named his resistance 'Geuzenactie' (Beggars' action).
IJzerdraat aimed to form a Geuzen army by spreading his message through chain letters. Although his initial message was lost, subsequent messages informed the readers about the occupation’s impact and predicted further restrictions. Jan Kijne, an ally of IJzerdraat, joined forces to sabotage German activities and gather information to pass on to England, where the Dutch government had fled to. They enlisted the help of Ary Kop and formed resistance armies in various cities such as Rotterdam, Maassluis, Delft, Zwijndrecht, and Dordrecht.
The Geuzen primarily focused on sabotage and gathering intelligence, including information about German troops, headquarters, and ships in the Port of Rotterdam. They also compiled lists of NSB members (Dutch Nazi collaborators) and “moffenmeiden” (Dutch girls involved with Germans). While their initial acts of sabotage were on a small scale, the Geuzen hoped to expand their resistance group through chain letters.
Visiting Bernardus IJzerdraat's grave at Ereveld Loenen Netherlands
Betrayal
Fate soon caught up with the Geuzen when Daan van Striep, a young man from Arnhem, obtained an issue of ‘De Geus van 1940’ in November 1940. He shared this with his colleague Johannes Smit, who reported it to the Germans. Van Striep and Smit were both arrested, and Smit revealed information during interrogations.
The Germans quickly arrested other Geuzen members due to their lack of secrecy and inability to warn each other. Ary Kop’s home was searched, resulting in his arrest along with his wife. The Geuzen were imprisoned in Vlaardingen and later transferred to the ‘Oranjehotel’ in Scheveningen (see next blog), where they were interrogated and tortured. Jacobus Boezeman, a Geus from Maassluis, died from torture injuries. Ary Kop was also tortured but managed to communicate with his wife through secret notes.
Trial and Execution
The trial against the Geuzen began on 24 February 1941. During this time, an additional 42 arrests took place, and Abraham Fernandes, a Surinamese Jew, died from torture in prison. 18 members, including IJzerdraat and Kop, were sentenced to death. On 13 March 1941, they were executed by firing squad at the Waalsdorpervlakte, close to The Hague.
It was the first mass execution in the Netherlands. The fusilladed men were buried at the Waalsdorpervlakte by the occupier. It is known that the 18 resistance fighters sang Psalm 43:4 while standing before the firing squad.
“Then I will go to the altar of God,
To God my exceeding joy;
And on the harp I will praise You
O God, my God.”
Another 157 Geuzen were held captive in the Oranjehotel, and many were later sent to concentration camps. Only a few survived the imprisonment.
Bernardus IJzerdraat’s grave at Ereveld Loenen
The Song of the 18 Dead
As a result of the executions, resistance fighter Jan Campert wrote ‘het lied der achttien dooden’ (‘the song of the eighteen dead’). The song of seven stanzas appeared in 1943, when it was illegally published. Campert had then already died in the Neuengamme concentration camp. He was arrested for helping Jewish refugees. The first stanza of 'het lied der achttien dooden' goes:
A cell two metres long for me
But not two metres wide,
That plot of earth will smaller be
Whose whereabouts they hide;
But there unknown my rest I’ll take,
My comrades with me slain,
Eighteen strong men saw morning break -
We’ll see no dawn again.
Posthumously
After the war, the graves at the Waalsdorpervlakte were opened, and the remains were reburied with honor. Several Geuzen members were buried in different locations across the Netherlands. Memorials, monuments, and ceremonies were established in remembrance of the Geuzen and their resistance efforts. The Stichting Geuzenverzet (Beggars’ Resistance Foundation) was founded to preserve and promote democracy and honor those who fought against dictatorship, discrimination, and racism.
Geuzenverzet monument and memorial stone
The Geuzen Resistance and The Crystal Butterfly
Like IJzerdraat, the heroine of The Crystal Butterfly, Edda Van der Valk, is also profoundly shaken by the bombing of Rotterdam and starts her war diaries. She finds the Geuzen pamphlets in her letterbox because her neighbor “Tante Riet” has a nephew in the resistance group. This way Edda follows them from the start and is horrified when she hears of their executions. This is what she writes in her diary. For privacy reasons I’ve changed IJzerdraat’s first name.
13 March 1941
Hendrik IJzerdraat is dead. Murdered by the ironfisted Germans. Together with fifteen other Geuzen. And three men involved in the February Strike. The eighteen men were taken from the Oranje Hotel to the Waasdorpervlakte and shot at point blank in the dunes.
Why? For Heaven’s sake, why?
What did these men do other than forewarn us against the Nazi occupation? They told the Dutch to mistrust Hitler’s ideology and paid for that warning with their lives. It is blatantly clear what the Germans want. Every Dutch inhabitant must dance to their tunes or can get the bullet.
The Geuzen never even touched so much as the sleeve of one German. Oh, the Dutch are enraged. But the pressure is on. The Germans must have believed the Dutch to be much more pliable. Well, we arent’t. But, oh dear God, I fear for what’s next. Neither side will go down without a fight and the Germans have the weapons, the power, and the infrastructure to squash us completely. And they’re getting anxious. The war in North Africa doesn’t seem to go well for them.
I will just write down what I can glean from the papers. It makes me feel more like a correspondent than a resistance fighter. I would never have the guts to openly resist. And with my family rubbing up against Hitler and Mussert, it would be idiocy on my behalf.
But still! Herr Hitler and Meneer Mussert, I’ll do my part. I swear by my Queen and country that I will not lie down and die for you if I can help it.
Geuzen Monument Market Vlaardingen
“Resistance against the enemy always takes place at the right time”
The bronze sculpture depicts a human figure, walking with determination, doubt, and trepidation, knowing his mission is to carry this message to the future. One hand raised in warning, while the other fisted hand protects his own body as he defends himself against the enemy.
At a short distance two severed feet symbolizing life that was ended abruptly.
Rotterdam: From Bombed-out to Best Travel City
The 15-minute bombing of Rotterdam led to the capitulation of the Netherlands. Hitler broke the valiant fight the small Dutch army had put up. Rotterdam’s historic centre was flattened, but the city became a modern architectural marvel after the war.
Introduction
In my soon-to-be released 6th novel in The Resistance Girl Series, The Crystal Butterfly, main character Edda Van der Valk is in Amsterdam when she hears on the radio about the bombing of nearby Rotterdam. Though Amsterdam is also suffering from intruding Germans both on the ground and in the air, the invasion of the Germans and the destruction of Rotterdam is a turning point in Edda. Abhorred, she starts a diary to register all the Germans are doing to her country. The seed of resistance is sown in her.
Amsterdam, 14 May 1940
I don’t know who will win this war, the Dutch, or the Germans, but I do not believe in the right of one country to attack another. It’s not that I’m against Germany. I have German blood myself, but I believe Holland should stay a sovereign country.
As I write this, I’m surprised at myself. I never take sides, not in a political sense, so why do I strongly feel sending bombers and dropping bombs on civilians is the worst way to create stability? Well, the answer is obvious from the question. A child could answer it.
So, Herr Hitler, you are terribly wrong, but I fear it will take a long time before either the world or you yourself will reach a full understanding of your blunder.
I will hide this diary carefully because I’m going to give Herr Hitler a piece of my thoughts every day. Not that he will ever listen to me, but maybe the world will one day.
Marchioness Edda Van der Valk.
Why was Rotterdam bombed?
Rotterdam was bombed by German bombers on 14 May 1940, and 711 people died. About 80,000 residents became homeless. The bombardment was the retaliation of the German invaders for the fights the Dutch troops put up, which had slowed down the German advance. The Netherlands surrendered to the Germans on 15 May 1940.
On the first day of World War 2 in the Netherlands, German paratroopers landed in the south of Rotterdam. However, the marines and units of the Army stationed in Rotterdam held their ground at the Maas bridges. The German war in the Netherlands turned out to be proceeding unexpectedly slowly. Hitler ordered Kampfgeschwader 54 to be deployed in the Netherlands to break the resistance in Rotterdam by all means.
The missed ultimatum
General Schmidt sent an ultimatum to Colonel Scharroo and to Mayor Oud, but Scharroo thought it was way too vague and did not intend to capitulate. Mayor Oud had difficulty connecting with General Winkelman and showed that the national interest came before the interest of the city.
Winkelman bought time by making Scharroo's argument about 'this scrap of paper' his own. A new and more official ultimatum was handed to Von Choltitz fifteen minutes before it expired.
General Schmidt ordered the planned 1:00pm artillery bombardment to be postponed but didn't receive the message that Kampfgeschwader 54 had taken off, so didn't take measures to have the red flares fired. He wanted Scharroo's surrender before 4:20 pm.
The Attack
Within minutes German Heinkel He 111 bombers appeared over Rotterdam. One squadron turned around after seeing red flares fired from Noordeiland directly ahead and dropped their bomb loads on areas below the flight path back to the departure bases, a common procedure to avoid explosion risks on landing.
Rotterdam's historic city centre was destroyed by 97,000 kilos of German high-explosive bombs in the year that it would celebrate its 600th anniversary. After the bombardment, Captain Bakker got through the centre to Colonel Scharroo's headquarters in Blijdorp and capitulated Rotterdam. Commander Wilson left for The Hague to request approval from General Winkelman.
Scharroo reported to the German lines half an hour before the end of the second ultimatum, at 15:50. He signed with 'angenommen', but the German Field Marshal Albert Kesselring ordered a second bombardment between 7:00 and 8:00pm.
General Kurt Student was hit by a beam after a stray projectile hit the command post. Dutch civilians were placed against the wall for a mass execution, but Von Choltitz prevented this mass murder.
The rain of bombs on Rotterdam was enormous, destroying 24,000 homes, 32 churches and 2 synagogues. 650-900 people died and 80,000 people became homeless.
Rotterdam's entire centre was a smouldering mess after the bombing, but several important buildings were spared. The rubble was cleared, and part of it was dumped in the water bodies of the Blaak and the Schie, as well as around and partly in the Kralingse Plas.
Rebuilding Rotterdam
Already in 1940 plans were made for the reconstruction of the city. The old Willemsbrug was also destroyed but was repaired quickly.
Without a historic heart, Rotterdam has a completely different cityscape than other Dutch cities, but today its heart is a thriving multi-cultural and artistic centre. Enough for Lonely Planet to call it Best Travel City in 2016.
Rotterdam 1940
Rotterdam today
WW2 Field Research to "Mussert's Wall" Netherlands
I invite you to join me on my field trip to Mussert’s Wall. Anton Mussert was the leader of the NSB. Learn more about World War 2 in Holland, about the Dutch NSB Party and Collaboration during WW2.
Unveiling the Dark Pages of History: The Dutch NSB Party and Collaboration during World War 2 in Holland.
In an upcoming blog I will shed light on the rise of De Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging, the National Socialist Movement (NSB), in the Netherlands before and during World War 2 and its collaboration with Hitler’s Germany.
The most controversial part of writing The Crystal Butterfly for me was Edda’s parents’ membership of the NSB and their support of Hitler’s ideology. I strongly felt, though–when writing a book on Holland in WW2–collaboration needed to be addressed. Most Dutch people remained neutral during the war, a small yet active part resisted and quite a significant number actively collaborated with the Nazis, whether or not they were a member of the NSB.
I went on a field trip to Mussert’s Wall. Anton Mussert was the leader of the NSB. I invite you to join me on my field trip using the video below.
In 2018 after a lot of debate it was decided that this wall shouldn’t be taken down, as it is an important remembrance for people what happened here. On my photograph you can see what it looks like today and compare it to when it was used over 80 years ago.
Mussert's Wall in 1940
Mussert's Wall in 2023
Feel free to comment below. Share your thoughts, knowledge, experiences. All appreciated!
And stay tuned for more research on WW2 in the Netherlands.
2023: the birth of a new book
New book, but also a new home and a new website. Years of research on European countries during World Wars NOT lost, and more to come! Did you know about Audrey Hepburn’s Dutch war years?
Since book 5 in The Resistance Girl Series, The Highland Raven, came out, I took a short break from writing about my main topic World War 2. In the interim I launched a new historical detective series, titled The Mrs Imogene Lynch Series. I also moved to another part of Holland at the end of December ‘22 and became a first-time grandmother in January. All very exciting but very distracting from my WW2 writing schedule! :-)
In January 2023 I began writing The Crystal Butterfly, my newest book in The Resistance Girl Series. This book is about the Dutch Resistance. It was a Godsent to be able this time to do all my groundwork ‘around the corner’ and I’ll share plenty of my (on the spot) research with you on this blog.
I took the time to deep-dive into the new story and get to the heart of my heroine’s journey before and during WW2. Her name is Edda Van der Valk and in The Crystal Butterfly she will take you through her Dutch war years.
As I now live close to Den Bosch - which is in the centre of Holland - I can easily travel to the most important places of action during WW2 in this country. So let me take you with me on my field trips as I retrace my steps to that gruesome part of our history, now some 80 years ago.
Few people living through WW2 are still with us today. The medalled-up veterans and bravely surviving Jews have become sparse centenaries, whose live presence in TV shows and newspaper articles are almost non-existent. WW2 is now almost history, lived through by the generation of our parents, grandparents, great-grandparents. But I still feel it is my duty to keep the history alive LEST WE FORGET.
The Crystal Butterfly is also inspired by - though far from identical to - Audrey Hepburn’s Dutch war years, so I’ll take you to places where she lived and spent some of the most arduous years of her life. And, of course, Anne Frank cannot be ignored in a book that is centred heavily on the deportations of Dutch-based Jewish people. After all, the arrest of Edda’s big love, Asher Hoffmann, was her reason for joining the Resistance.
PS For avid readers of my blog you may notice I have a new website and miss the abundant archive of years of research on many European countries during the World Wars. Fear not for it will return in an even clearer and more user friendly way.
Hello Reader
Welcome to Historical Facts & Fiction. Here imagination meets reality. I created this blog as a space to assemble my own research that had no place in my World War novels. Find out more about the background to The Resistance Girl Series!
Welcome to Historical Facts & Fiction. Here imagination meets reality. I created this blog as a space to assemble my own research that had no place in my World War novels. I hope you’ll enjoy finding out more about the background to The Resistance Girl Series.
Titbits of research certainly have their place in historical fiction, but when it becomes info dump, it’s too much. But in a blog there’s enough space to share all in-depth investigations and fieldwork to my heart’s content.
Most Historical Fiction readers are fervent researchers themselves; half the fun of reading a good HF novel is popping onto the net to fact-check what you’ve just read. You simply must know if SOE really had women spies, or if Eva Braun actually married Hitler hours before joining him in death. The internet is our treasure trove. I know I can’t stop myself, and love learning a thing or two in the process.
Have you ever wondered where HF authors get their ideas for a new book or series, or how they do their research? No two HF authors are alike – of course – but we all do rely heavily on today’s search engines. No work gets done without it.
However, as you’ll read in an upcoming blog post, my reason for starting The Resistance Girl Series was a family photo I found by chance. Curiosity is a good start. As a European with lineage in several countries, I not only study the lives of these people. They are in my bloodline.
My Great-uncles William and Jack Westcott
But it wasn’t just my uncles’ photograph that incited me to write In Picardy’s Fields. It may sound terrible to say - and I won’t do so aloud - but I love the World Wars. For me as a fiction writer these intense and dark periods in recent human history provide the greatest canvas on which to splash my stories, in an endless variety; this was the period – par excellence – in which ordinary people performed extraordinary deeds. And we all love us a decent hero(ine)!
I’m never tired of learning more about the first half of the 20th century and how it’s shaped our current society. So, please permit me to infect you with some of that passion.
Next to online studies, you can also join me on my field trips to various countries while I do my onsite research.
On to the first blog now…
Thank you for being here!